芒果视频下载

網(wang)站分類
登錄 |    
郡縣制
0 票數:0 #歷史事件#
郡縣制,是中國古代繼宗法血緣分封制度之后出現的以郡統縣的兩級地方管理行政制度,幾乎盛行整個封建時代。郡縣制是在中央垂直管理地方,地方官員由皇帝直接任免的流官任期制,使地方處在中央的管轄之下,有利于中央集權的加強和國家統一。郡縣制是古代中央集權制在地方政權上的體現,它發起于春秋戰國時期,再經過秦始皇的改革,正式成為了秦漢以后的地方政治體制。
詳細介紹 PROFILE +

簡介

郡縣制(zhi)是指(zhi)對中國古代實行(xing)的中央集(ji)權體(ti)制(zhi)下,郡、縣二級政權的地方行(xing)政制(zhi)度(類似于行(xing)政區劃)的總(zong)稱。

西周時(shi)縣(xian)(xian)大於(wu)郡(jun)(jun),《逸周書作(zuo)雒》:“千(qian)里百縣(xian)(xian),縣(xian)(xian)有四郡(jun)(jun)”;《左傳》哀公二年:“克敵(di)者,上大夫(fu)受(shou)縣(xian)(xian),下(xia)大夫(fu)受(shou)郡(jun)(jun)”。春秋(qiu)時(shi)代一(yi)些(xie)諸侯國(guo)為(wei)了加強管理而(er)置縣(xian)(xian)和直接任命一(yi)些(xie)不(bu)得(de)世襲(xi)的官員為(wei)地方官。後來晉又在國(guo)內置郡(jun)(jun)。由(you)國(guo)君任免地方官,這制(zhi)度(du)使分(fen)散的權力層層集歸中央(yang),防(fang)止(zhi)因分(fen)封(feng)而(er)導致分(fen)裂。至(zhi)戰(zhan)國(guo)時(shi)代這種制(zhi)度(du)逐(zhu)漸為(wei)各強國(guo)采用,逐(zhu)漸減少(shao)分(fen)封(feng)於(wu)貴族的地區。

縣(xian)(xian)制(zhi)起源于春秋時期的(de)楚(chu)國(guo)(guo),楚(chu)武王(wang)(wang)熊(xiong)通。熊(xiong)通,先楚(chu)熊(xiong)坎的(de)次(ci)子,奪得兄長熊(xiong)旬的(de)王(wang)(wang)位自立(li)為(wei)楚(chu)王(wang)(wang)。在(zai)三(san)年(nian)之后(hou)便(bian)想渡江攻打西(xi)周(zhou)在(zai)漢中布(bu)置的(de)重鎮(zhen),但是(shi)第(di)一次(ci)失敗了(le),于是(shi)回國(guo)(guo)養精蓄銳,之后(hou)吞并了(le)周(zhou)圍的(de)國(guo)(guo)力衰弱但物資豐富的(de)權(quan)(quan)(quan)(quan)國(guo)(guo),改(gai)權(quan)(quan)(quan)(quan)國(guo)(guo)為(wei)權(quan)(quan)(quan)(quan)縣(xian)(xian),熊(xiong)通命(ming)權(quan)(quan)(quan)(quan)王(wang)(wang)做了(le)縣(xian)(xian)尹,權(quan)(quan)(quan)(quan)王(wang)(wang)哪肯舍(she)棄王(wang)(wang)位做一個小縣(xian)(xian)尹呢,于是(shi)私下召集兵馬發(fa)(fa)生叛亂,楚(chu)王(wang)(wang)熊(xiong)通知道后(hou)馬上(shang)發(fa)(fa)兵平亂,將權(quan)(quan)(quan)(quan)王(wang)(wang)帶回楚(chu)國(guo)(guo)看管(guan),又在(zai)權(quan)(quan)(quan)(quan)縣(xian)(xian)選拔人才做縣(xian)(xian)伊。這是(shi)中華(hua)縣(xian)(xian)制(zhi)之肇始(shi)。

郡制起源于春(chun)(chun)秋時期的秦(qin)國,秦(qin)穆公(gong)嬴任(ren)好。嬴任(ren)好,秦(qin)德公(gong)少子(zi),秦(qin)宣公(gong)、秦(qin)成公(gong)之(zhi)弟,被《史(shi)記(ji)》認定(ding)其為春(chun)(chun)秋五霸(ba)之(zhi)一(yi)。秦(qin)穆公(gong)九年(nian)(前651),晉公(gong)子(zi)夷吾(即(ji)晉惠公(gong))對秦(qin)國使者談到(dao)“君實有郡縣”,為秦(qin)國設(she)郡的最早記(ji)載,也是中國歷史(shi)上最早關于郡制的記(ji)載。

秦始(shi)皇(huang)(huang)統一天下(xia)(xia)之(zhi)前,縣大(da)(da)于郡(jun)(jun),千里百縣,縣有四郡(jun)(jun),因此(ci)(ci)秦始(shi)皇(huang)(huang)之(zhi)前的(de)(de)(de)地(di)(di)方行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)(du)為“縣郡(jun)(jun)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)”。秦始(shi)皇(huang)(huang)統一天下(xia)(xia)後,曾出現過應否(fou)置郡(jun)(jun)的(de)(de)(de)爭(zheng)論。當時不(bu)少大(da)(da)臣,特別是(shi)李(li)斯的(de)(de)(de)上司王(wang)綰(wan),認(ren)為原(yuan)楚國(guo)、燕國(guo)、齊國(guo)等地(di)(di)的(de)(de)(de)領土(tu)都遠離秦國(guo),主(zhu)張(zhang)實(shi)行(xing)(xing)分封(feng),授各地(di)(di)貴族予(yu)世襲(xi)(xi)的(de)(de)(de)諸侯名份(fen),惟身為廷尉(wei)的(de)(de)(de)李(li)斯認(ren)為分封(feng)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)是(shi)周朝諸侯混戰(zhan)的(de)(de)(de)根源,他(ta)大(da)(da)膽地(di)(di)反駁道,周制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)訂的(de)(de)(de)這(zhe)個政(zheng)(zheng)策已經(jing)證明是(shi)一個政(zheng)(zheng)治災難(nan)。周王(wang)室(shi)的(de)(de)(de)親(qin)戚一旦取(qu)得(de)了他(ta)們的(de)(de)(de)土(tu)地(di)(di),立刻(ke)互相(xiang)疏(shu)遠和(he)(he)進行(xing)(xing)戰(zhan)爭(zheng),而天子(zi)則無(wu)力阻止他(ta)們,所以結論是(shi)“置諸侯不(bu)便”。他(ta)力排眾議(yi)建議(yi)實(shi)行(xing)(xing)郡(jun)(jun)縣制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi),并(bing)得(de)到秦始(shi)皇(huang)(huang)的(de)(de)(de)采納(na)。在郡(jun)(jun)縣制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)底(di)下(xia)(xia),共設三十六郡(jun)(jun),每(mei)郡(jun)(jun)有守(相(xiang)當于省長)、尉(wei)(相(xiang)當于防區司令)和(he)(he)監(相(xiang)當于監察專員)各一。郡(jun)(jun)下(xia)(xia)轄縣;郡(jun)(jun)(守)與縣(令),由皇(huang)(huang)帝直(zhi)接任命。秦代(dai)至(zhi)此(ci)(ci)成(cheng)為為中國(guo)歷史上最早在全境推行(xing)(xing)“郡(jun)(jun)縣制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)”的(de)(de)(de)朝代(dai)。至(zhi)漢(han)代(dai)仍(reng)承(cheng)襲(xi)(xi)這(zhe)個制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)(du),形成(cheng)州郡(jun)(jun)縣三級行(xing)(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)管理,自此(ci)(ci)成(cheng)為日後各朝地(di)(di)方政(zheng)(zheng)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)的(de)(de)(de)基礎,直(zhi)到唐朝,才被(bei)道路制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)所取(qu)代(dai)。

唐代(dai)柳(liu)宗元寫有政論(lun)文章《封建論(lun)》,認為中(zhong)國分封制度是百害(hai)而無(wu)一利(li),并闡發(fa)了郡縣(xian)制的(de)優(you)越(yue)性。

來歷

春秋(qiu)(qiu)時(shi)代,隨著(zhu)(zhu)世卿世祿制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)被(bei)官(guan)(guan)僚制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)的(de)(de)取代,地(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)組織(zhi)(zhi)也逐漸(jian)由采邑制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)轉為(wei)縣(xian)(xian)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)~郡(jun)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)。縣(xian)(xian)與郡(jun)的(de)(de)出(chu)現(xian),同(tong)春秋(qiu)(qiu)時(shi)的(de)(de)政(zheng)(zheng)治形(xing)勢(shi)的(de)(de)發展(zhan)(zhan)有(you)密切的(de)(de)關系。春秋(qiu)(qiu)初期,諸侯國內普遍實行(xing)采邑制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)。到(dao)(dao)了(le)中后期,由于(yu)土地(di)(di)私(si)有(you)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)的(de)(de)發展(zhan)(zhan)和按田畝征收賦稅(shui),原有(you)的(de)(de)采邑制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)度(du)已不能適應新(xin)的(de)(de)形(xing)勢(shi)。這(zhe)時(shi),一些國家(jia)在(zai)所占有(you)的(de)(de)領地(di)(di)的(de)(de)地(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)推行(xing)由國君直接管理的(de)(de)縣(xian)(xian)郡(jun)管理體(ti)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)。最初的(de)(de)郡(jun)大(da)(da)多建(jian)于(yu)邊境地(di)(di)區(qu),區(qu)域雖大(da)(da),地(di)(di)位卻比縣(xian)(xian)低。晉(jin)國的(de)(de)趙簡子曾于(yu)公(gong)元前493年宣布(bu)克敵者,上大(da)(da)夫受縣(xian)(xian),下(xia)大(da)(da)夫受郡(jun)。《左傳》哀公(gong)二(er)年這(zhe)是我國歷史上推行(xing)縣(xian)(xian)郡(jun)兩級制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)的(de)(de)開端。這(zhe)個時(shi)候縣(xian)(xian)的(de)(de)建(jian)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)高于(yu)郡(jun)。開始時(shi),縣(xian)(xian)和郡(jun)都是有(you)國君派官(guan)(guan)駐(zhu)守(shou),后來為(wei)了(le)擴大(da)(da)兼并和抵御外敵的(de)(de)需(xu)要,就(jiu)成了(le)固定的(de)(de)地(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)政(zheng)(zheng)權(quan)組織(zhi)(zhi),有(you)權(quan)應變邊境的(de)(de)突發事變。發展(zhan)(zhan)到(dao)(dao)了(le)戰國時(shi),隨著(zhu)(zhu)邊地(di)(di)日(ri)益繁(fan)榮,就(jiu)在(zai)郡(jun)下(xia)分(fen)設(she)若干個縣(xian)(xian),郡(jun)在(zai)建(jian)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)上的(de)(de)地(di)(di)位高于(yu)縣(xian)(xian),并逐漸(jian)形(xing)成郡(jun)縣(xian)(xian)兩級地(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)(fang)組織(zhi)(zhi)。

光有中央政府機(ji)構(gou)而無地(di)方(fang)行(xing)政機(ji)構(gou),仍(reng)然形不成強大(da)的(de)封(feng)建(jian)統(tong)(tong)治網絡(luo)。但建(jian)立(li)什么樣的(de)地(di)方(fang)行(xing)政機(ji)構(gou),這在秦統(tong)(tong)一六國(guo)之(zhi)后(hou)是經歷(li)了(le)一場(chang)激烈爭論的(de)。以丞相王(wang)綰為首的(de)群臣,主張(zhang)沿用周代以來的(de)封(feng)國(guo)建(jian)藩制(zhi)度,分封(feng)諸皇子(zi)為王(wang)。他們的(de)理由是有利于統(tong)(tong)治新征服的(de)六國(guo)地(di)區。而廷尉李(li)(li)斯則(ze)力(li)排眾議,主張(zhang)廢(fei)除分封(feng)諸侯(hou)制(zhi)度,全面(mian)推行(xing)郡(jun)縣(xian)制(zhi)度。很(hen)顯然,李(li)(li)斯的(de)主張(zhang)符合專制(zhi)皇權和統(tong)(tong)一的(de)要求。因而得到了(le)秦始皇的(de)采納,將全國(guo)分為三(san)十六郡(jun)。后(hou)隨邊境(jing)的(de)不斷開發和郡(jun)治的(de)調整(zheng),增至四(si)十余郡(jun)。

郡(jun)(jun)(jun),是中(zhong)(zhong)央(yang)政(zheng)(zheng)府轄下的(de)地(di)方行(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)單位,其(qi)組織機構(gou)與中(zhong)(zhong)央(yang)政(zheng)(zheng)府略(lve)同(tong),設(she)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)守、郡(jun)(jun)(jun)尉(wei)、郡(jun)(jun)(jun)監(jian)(監(jian)御(yu)史)。郡(jun)(jun)(jun)守,為一郡(jun)(jun)(jun)最高行(xing)政(zheng)(zheng)長官,掌全郡(jun)(jun)(jun)政(zheng)(zheng)務,直接受中(zhong)(zhong)央(yang)政(zheng)(zheng)府節制;郡(jun)(jun)(jun)尉(wei),輔(fu)佐郡(jun)(jun)(jun)守,掌管全郡(jun)(jun)(jun)軍事;郡(jun)(jun)(jun)監(jian),掌監(jian)察工作(zuo)。

郡(jun)以下設(she)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)或(huo)道(dao)。縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)是(shi)秦朝統治機構中關(guan)鍵的(de)(de)一級組織,是(shi)從中央到地(di)方政府機構中具有相對(dui)獨立性的(de)(de)一個單(dan)位(wei)。內地(di)設(she)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian),邊地(di)少數民族地(di)區設(she)道(dao)。滿萬戶以上(shang)的(de)(de)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)設(she)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)令(ling)(ling),不滿萬戶的(de)(de)設(she)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)長(chang)(chang)。令(ling)(ling)、長(chang)(chang)為一縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)之首,掌全(quan)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)政務(wu),受郡(jun)守節制。縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)令(ling)(ling)下設(she)尉、丞。尉,掌全(quan)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)軍事和治安;丞,為縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)令(ling)(ling)或(huo)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)長(chang)(chang)的(de)(de)助手,掌全(quan)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)司法(fa)。

縣(xian)以(yi)下設鄉(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)、里和(he)亭(ting)(ting)(ting)。鄉(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)和(he)里是(shi)行政(zheng)機構,亭(ting)(ting)(ting)為(wei)治(zhi)安(an)組(zu)織(zhi)。鄉(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)設三老(lao)、嗇夫和(he)游徼。三老(lao)掌(zhang)(zhang)教化,嗇夫掌(zhang)(zhang)訴(su)訟和(he)稅收,游徼掌(zhang)(zhang)治(zhi)安(an)。鄉(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)以(yi)下為(wei)里,是(shi)秦(qin)國最基層的(de)(de)行政(zheng)單位。里設里正(zheng)或里典,其職能除與鄉(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)政(zheng)權職能大體相同外(wai),還有組(zu)織(zhi)生產的(de)(de)任務。此外(wai),還有司(si)治(zhi)安(an)、禁盜(dao)賊的(de)(de)專門機構亭(ting)(ting)(ting)。秦(qin)規定,兩亭(ting)(ting)(ting)之間(jian)相隔十里,設亭(ting)(ting)(ting)長。亭(ting)(ting)(ting)遍布于城鄉(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)各要(yao)地(di)。鄉(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)里的(de)(de)作用逐漸(jian)強化,并超過(guo)郡縣(xian),民間(jian)有知(zhi)鄉(xiang)(xiang)(xiang)里,不知(zhi)郡縣(xian)的(de)(de)說法。

歷史沿革

春(chun)(chun)秋時期(qi)(qi)已(yi)有縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)、郡(jun)的設(she)置。春(chun)(chun)秋的縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)可分為(wei)(wei)(wei)兩(liang)種(zhong)類型:楚和秦(qin)(qin)的縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)都直屬于(yu)君(jun)(jun)主;晉、吳(wu)的縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)多是卿大夫的封邑。兩(liang)者(zhe)都是直屬于(yu)國(guo)(guo)君(jun)(jun)的別都,具有邊(bian)防重鎮的作用。楚武(wu)王滅掉權國(guo)(guo),將其改(gai)建(jian)為(wei)(wei)(wei)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian),是為(wei)(wei)(wei)設(she)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)始。春(chun)(chun)秋后(hou)期(qi)(qi),縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)制(zhi)開始逐漸推(tui)行(xing)于(yu)內地(di)。戰(zhan)國(guo)(guo)時期(qi)(qi),縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)的設(she)置已(yi)較(jiao)廣(guang)泛,并轉變為(wei)(wei)(wei)作為(wei)(wei)(wei)地(di)方(fang)政(zheng)權而(er)實(shi)行(xing)官僚制(zhi)度的縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)制(zhi)。縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)令為(wei)(wei)(wei)一縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)長,由國(guo)(guo)君(jun)(jun)任(ren)免。縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)下有鄉、里等作為(wei)(wei)(wei)國(guo)(guo)家對(dui)居(ju)民進行(xing)控(kong)制(zhi)的基層組(zu)織單(dan)位。郡(jun)的設(she)置要較(jiao)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)為(wei)(wei)(wei)晚。秦(qin)(qin)穆公九年(前651),晉公子夷吾(即晉惠(hui)公)對(dui)秦(qin)(qin)國(guo)(guo)使者(zhe)談到(dao)“君(jun)(jun)實(shi)有郡(jun)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)”,為(wei)(wei)(wei)秦(qin)(qin)國(guo)(guo)設(she)郡(jun)的最早(zao)記載。而(er)后(hou),晉、趙、吳(wu)相繼設(she)置了郡(jun)。這一時期(qi)(qi)的郡(jun)地(di)位比縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)為(wei)(wei)(wei)低,但縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)與郡(jun)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)間并無相統(tong)屬的關系。到(dao)了戰(zhan)國(guo)(guo)時期(qi)(qi),有名(ming)可考(kao)的最早(zao)設(she)置的郡(jun)當為(wei)(wei)(wei)魏文侯(hou)時的西河郡(jun)(吳(wu)起曾(ceng)為(wei)(wei)(wei)西河守)、上郡(jun)和楚悼王時的宛郡(jun)。隨著邊(bian)防設(she)郡(jun)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)地(di)逐漸繁盛(sheng),內地(di)的縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)逐漸增多,需要建(jian)立起更(geng)高一級的管(guan)理(li)機構(gou),于(yu)是就形(xing)成了郡(jun)、縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)兩(liang)級制(zhi)的地(di)方(fang)管(guan)理(li)體系。郡(jun)守為(wei)(wei)(wei)郡(jun)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)長,多由武(wu)官充任(ren),有征(zheng)兵領軍之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)權。至戰(zhan)國(guo)(guo)末年,各國(guo)(guo)郡(jun)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)的設(she)立已(yi)很普遍(bian)。

秦統(tong)一(yi)后(hou)(hou)郡(jun)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)制遂遍行于(yu)全(quan)(quan)國(guo),漢(han)繼(ji)秦制,比秦更為(wei)(wei)嚴整。司(si)馬遷說秦始皇(huang)分天下為(wei)(wei)36郡(jun),《晉書》以(yi)為(wei)(wei)統(tong)一(yi)后(hou)(hou)又(you)(you)有所(suo)(suo)增設(she)(she)(she),可(ke)達40郡(jun)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)多。漢(han)時(shi)不(bu)斷增立新郡(jun),東漢(han)順(shun)帝(di)(di)時(shi)全(quan)(quan)國(guo)共有105郡(jun)國(guo)。國(guo)指諸侯王國(guo),武(wu)(wu)帝(di)(di)以(yi)后(hou)(hou),國(guo)的(de)地位(wei)相(xiang)當于(yu)郡(jun)。一(yi)郡(jun)所(suo)(suo)統(tong)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian),一(yi)般約為(wei)(wei)20縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)上下,一(yi)郡(jun)總人(ren)口數以(yi)20萬(wan)左(zuo)右(you)者(zhe)居多,多者(zhe)也可(ke)逾百(bai)萬(wan)。漢(han)代一(yi)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian),其面積(ji)大約為(wei)(wei)方百(bai)里。漢(han)代列侯所(suo)(suo)食(shi)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)曰(yue)侯國(guo),皇(huang)后(hou)(hou)、公主(zhu)所(suo)(suo)食(shi)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)曰(yue)邑,有少數族居住之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)曰(yue)道。縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)下置(zhi)(zhi)有鄉、亭、里。里是民戶聚(ju)集(ji)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)處(chu),猶如后(hou)(hou)世之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)村落。秦稱郡(jun)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)長(chang)官(guan)(guan)為(wei)(wei)守。漢(han)景(jing)帝(di)(di)時(shi)改(gai)(gai)名太守,西漢(han)時(shi)郡(jun)的(de)軍事平(ping)時(shi)似(si)主(zhu)要(yao)由郡(jun)尉(wei)(wei)主(zhu)管。由于(yu)郡(jun)守要(yao)兼領武(wu)(wu)事,故(gu)當時(shi)人(ren)常以(yi)“郡(jun)將”稱之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)。郡(jun)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)長(chang)官(guan)(guan),除(chu)太守外,秦置(zhi)(zhi)監、尉(wei)(wei)。西漢(han)置(zhi)(zhi)尉(wei)(wei)而(er)不(bu)置(zhi)(zhi)監。景(jing)帝(di)(di)時(shi)改(gai)(gai)尉(wei)(wei)為(wei)(wei)都(dou)尉(wei)(wei)。都(dou)尉(wei)(wei)和太守的(de)治(zhi)所(suo)(suo)可(ke)分設(she)(she)(she)于(yu)兩(liang)地。都(dou)尉(wei)(wei)也設(she)(she)(she)府置(zhi)(zhi)官(guan)(guan)屬(shu),在郡(jun)中(zhong)和太守并重,有時(shi)可(ke)代太守行事。縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)長(chang)官(guan)(guan)為(wei)(wei)令、長(chang)。新莽時(shi)曾將令、長(chang)改(gai)(gai)名為(wei)(wei)“宰”。《漢(han)書》說縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)滿萬(wan)戶者(zhe),其長(chang)官(guan)(guan)稱令,不(bu)滿者(zhe)稱長(chang)。令、長(chang)的(de)職責(ze)是掌(zhang)管一(yi)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)的(de)治(zhi)安、刑訟及賦斂徭役(yi)等事。令、長(chang)之(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)下設(she)(she)(she)丞一(yi)名,以(yi)主(zhu)文書、倉庫和監獄(yu)。又(you)(you)設(she)(she)(she)尉(wei)(wei),專(zhuan)管武(wu)(wu)事,大縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)則(ze)設(she)(she)(she)左(zuo)尉(wei)(wei)、右(you)尉(wei)(wei)各一(yi)人(ren)。漢(han)代的(de)太守、令、丞、尉(wei)(wei)皆由中(zhong)央(yang)任免。

秦朝

秦(qin)統(tong)(tong)一(yi)(yi)后(hou)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)制(zhi)遂遍行(xing)(xing)(xing)于全(quan)國(guo)﹐司馬遷說秦(qin)始皇分天下(xia)(xia)為(wei)(wei)(wei)三(san)十(shi)(shi)六郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)﹐《晉書》以為(wei)(wei)(wei)統(tong)(tong)一(yi)(yi)后(hou)又有(you)所增(zeng)設﹐可(ke)達(da)四(si)十(shi)(shi)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)之(zhi)多(duo)﹐王(wang)國(guo)維(wei)等又以為(wei)(wei)(wei)有(you)四(si)十(shi)(shi)幾(ji)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(見秦(qin)朝行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)區劃(hua))。究竟(jing)多(duo)少(shao)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)﹐尚難確(que)定。郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)以下(xia)(xia)的(de)(de)一(yi)(yi)級(ji)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)機(ji)構是(shi)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)或(huo)道(dao)。內地均(jun)設縣(xian)(xian)(xian),只有(you)邊地少(shao)數民族才設道(dao)。道(dao)和縣(xian)(xian)(xian)是(shi)平行(xing)(xing)(xing)的(de)(de),道(dao)、縣(xian)(xian)(xian)均(jun)是(shi)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)下(xia)(xia)一(yi)(yi)級(ji)的(de)(de)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)組織(zhi),其(qi)官制(zhi)大約(yue)(yue)也(ye)略同。西(xi)漢(han)(han)時(shi)不(bu)斷增(zeng)立新郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(見西(xi)漢(han)(han)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)區劃(hua))﹐據平帝(di)元始年間(jian)的(de)(de)記載﹐全(quan)國(guo)共(gong)有(you)一(yi)(yi)百(bai)(bai)(bai)(bai)零三(san)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)國(guo)(見西(xi)漢(han)(han)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)國(guo))﹐到東(dong)(dong)(dong)(dong)漢(han)(han)時(shi)(見東(dong)(dong)(dong)(dong)漢(han)(han)行(xing)(xing)(xing)政(zheng)區劃(hua)),據東(dong)(dong)(dong)(dong)漢(han)(han)順帝(di)時(shi)的(de)(de)記載﹐全(quan)國(guo)當(dang)時(shi)共(gong)有(you)一(yi)(yi)百(bai)(bai)(bai)(bai)零五郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)國(guo)(見東(dong)(dong)(dong)(dong)漢(han)(han)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)國(guo))。國(guo)指(zhi)諸侯王(wang)國(guo)﹐武帝(di)以后(hou)﹐國(guo)的(de)(de)地位相當(dang)于郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)。秦(qin)在京師地區設內史(shi)以統(tong)(tong)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)﹐西(xi)漢(han)(han)初因之(zhi)。武帝(di)時(shi)乃份(fen)內史(shi)之(zhi)地為(wei)(wei)(wei)京兆﹑左(zuo)馮(feng)翊﹑右(you)扶風﹐或(huo)稱為(wei)(wei)(wei)“三(san)輔”﹐實則為(wei)(wei)(wei)三(san)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)。東(dong)(dong)(dong)(dong)漢(han)(han)在都城所在的(de)(de)洛陽地區設河南(nan)尹﹐也(ye)相當(dang)于一(yi)(yi)個郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)太(tai)守。一(yi)(yi)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)所統(tong)(tong)之(zhi)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)﹐多(duo)少(shao)不(bu)等﹐一(yi)(yi)般約(yue)(yue)為(wei)(wei)(wei)二(er)(er)十(shi)(shi)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)上(shang)下(xia)(xia)﹐屬縣(xian)(xian)(xian)最多(duo)之(zhi)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)當(dang)推西(xi)漢(han)(han)的(de)(de)瑯邪郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)﹐有(you)屬縣(xian)(xian)(xian)五十(shi)(shi)一(yi)(yi)﹔最少(shao)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)為(wei)(wei)(wei)玄菟郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)﹐僅(jin)轄三(san)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)。一(yi)(yi)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)總人(ren)口(kou)數以二(er)(er)十(shi)(shi)萬(wan)左(zuo)右(you)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)居多(duo)﹐多(duo)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)也(ye)可(ke)逾百(bai)(bai)(bai)(bai)萬(wan)。兩漢(han)(han)百(bai)(bai)(bai)(bai)萬(wan)人(ren)口(kou)以上(shang)的(de)(de)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)有(you)十(shi)(shi)幾(ji)個﹐其(qi)中(zhong)最多(duo)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)為(wei)(wei)(wei)西(xi)漢(han)(han)的(de)(de)汝南(nan)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)﹐達(da)二(er)(er)百(bai)(bai)(bai)(bai)五十(shi)(shi)九萬(wan)人(ren)﹔少(shao)者(zhe)(zhe)(zhe)不(bu)過幾(ji)萬(wan)﹐甚至象東(dong)(dong)(dong)(dong)漢(han)(han)時(shi)的(de)(de)朔方郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)﹐僅(jin)七千多(duo)人(ren)。

漢代(dai)一縣﹐其面積大約為方百里。人口稠密之(zhi)地﹐不足方百里者也可成縣﹔

而人口稀少之地(di)﹐一縣(xian)(xian)(xian)或遠超過方百里。漢(han)代列(lie)侯所食之縣(xian)(xian)(xian)曰(yue)侯國(guo)(guo)(guo)﹐皇后﹑公主所食之縣(xian)(xian)(xian)曰(yue)邑﹐有(you)少數族居(ju)住之縣(xian)(xian)(xian)曰(yue)道。據西漢(han)平帝時的(de)(de)統計﹐當時全(quan)國(guo)(guo)(guo)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)﹑邑﹑道﹑侯國(guo)(guo)(guo)﹐總數為一千五百八(ba)十七﹔東漢(han)順帝時的(de)(de)記載﹐總數為一千一百八(ba)十。縣(xian)(xian)(xian)之下置(zhi)有(you)鄉(xiang)(xiang)﹑亭(ting)﹑里。平帝時全(quan)國(guo)(guo)(guo)共有(you)六千六百二十二鄉(xiang)(xiang)﹐二萬九(jiu)千六百三(san)十五亭(ting)。由此推測﹐每(mei)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)下面大(da)約有(you)九(jiu)鄉(xiang)(xiang)和十幾亭(ting)。里是(shi)民(min)戶(hu)聚集之處﹐猶如(ru)后世之村落。

從長(chang)沙馬王堆漢墓出土(tu)的(de)(de)(de)(de)地圖來(lai)看﹐西漢初﹐一(yi)里(li)的(de)(de)(de)(de)戶數多(duo)少不等(deng)﹐多(duo)者(zhe)百余戶或幾十(shi)戶﹐少者(zhe)才十(shi)幾戶﹐有的(de)(de)(de)(de)史書以為漢代一(yi)里(li)百家﹐恐(kong)不會(hui)如(ru)此整齊。郡(jun)(jun)(jun)縣之長(chang)官秦郡(jun)(jun)(jun)一(yi)級(ji)(ji)的(de)(de)(de)(de)最高長(chang)官是(shi)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)守(shou)(shou)。郡(jun)(jun)(jun)守(shou)(shou)之下(xia)設(she)丞,輔佐郡(jun)(jun)(jun)守(shou)(shou)管理(li)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)中(zhong)的(de)(de)(de)(de)行政及刑(xing)獄工(gong)作,郡(jun)(jun)(jun)的(de)(de)(de)(de)軍事(shi)和治安(an)則由郡(jun)(jun)(jun)尉負(fu)責。郡(jun)(jun)(jun)尉不干(gan)預(yu)民事(shi),與(yu)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)守(shou)(shou)的(de)(de)(de)(de)職責有明(ming)確分工(gong)。統一(yi)后(hou),在郡(jun)(jun)(jun)一(yi)級(ji)(ji)增置(zhi)了監(jian)察(cha)史,負(fu)責監(jian)督百姓(xing)及官吏,職務類似于(yu)中(zhong)央的(de)(de)(de)(de)御(yu)史大夫,也有牽制(zhi)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)守(shou)(shou)的(de)(de)(de)(de)作用。

秦(qin)制滿萬戶(hu)以(yi)上的(de)(de)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)設(she)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)令,不(bu)滿萬戶(hu)的(de)(de)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)設(she)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)長,是為一(yi)(yi)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)之首。縣(xian)(xian)(xian)令下設(she)丞、尉(wei)(wei)。縣(xian)(xian)(xian)尉(wei)(wei)負責一(yi)(yi)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)的(de)(de)軍事(shi)和(he)治(zhi)安。由于秦(qin)王朝政權具有(you)(you)軍事(shi)專(zhuan)制的(de)(de)特(te)點,所以(yi)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)尉(wei)(wei)的(de)(de)任(ren)(ren)務特(te)別(bie)繁(fan)重,舉凡一(yi)(yi)切軍事(shi)、治(zhi)安、征發徭(yao)役、管理士(shi)卒(zu)等(deng)事(shi),均要(yao)(yao)由縣(xian)(xian)(xian)尉(wei)(wei)主持完成,稍(shao)有(you)(you)差錯就要(yao)(yao)受到嚴厲制裁(cai)。由于縣(xian)(xian)(xian)尉(wei)(wei)任(ren)(ren)務繁(fan)重,所以(yi)每一(yi)(yi)個縣(xian)(xian)(xian)的(de)(de)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)尉(wei)(wei)不(bu)止一(yi)(yi)人,可(ke)能有(you)(you)二(er)至(zhi)四個縣(xian)(xian)(xian)尉(wei)(wei)。

商鞅變法時,廢分封(feng),行縣(xian)制(zhi)。秦統(tong)一(yi)后,秦始皇(huang)采納李斯的建議,決定在全國范(fan)圍廢除分封(feng)制(zhi),以郡縣(xian)制(zhi)作為中央控(kong)制(zhi)地方的制(zhi)度。

郡(jun),是中央政府(fu)以下最高一(yi)級地方行(xing)政機構(gou)。秦始皇統一(yi)六(liu)國后,國土空前廣袤,分(fen)天下為三十(shi)六(liu)郡(jun)。“郡(jun)”設郡(jun)守、郡(jun)尉、監御史(shi)等職官,分(fen)掌(zhang)行(xing)政、

兵事、監察職責(ze)。郡守(shou)是(shi)郡的最高(gao)行(xing)政長官,對(dui)上(shang)承受(shou)中央命令,對(dui)下督責(ze)所屬(shu)各(ge)縣。設置于(yu)少數民族聚居(ju)地(di)(di)的同級地(di)(di)方(fang)行(xing)政機(ji)構成為“道”。縣級一下有(you)(you)“鄉”、“里”兩級地(di)(di)方(fang)基層行(xing)政機(ji)構。此外,還有(you)(you)負責(ze)地(di)(di)方(fang)治安并兼管公文傳(chuan)遞的“亭”。

縣,是郡(jun)的(de)(de)下級行政機(ji)構。縣的(de)(de)長官稱縣令,由朝廷(ting)任命,主(zhu)要任務是治理民(min)眾,管(guan)理政財、司法(fa)、獄訟和(he)兵役。郡(jun)守通過每年的(de)(de)考核和(he)平時的(de)(de)檢查,對縣令的(de)(de)工作(zuo)進(jin)行考察。

秦朝這(zhe)(zhe)套從中(zhong)央到地方的(de)統(tong)(tong)治(zhi)機構,管制(zhi)有明確(que)的(de)職責分工,既相(xiang)互配合(he),又彼此牽制(zhi),統(tong)(tong)治(zhi)機構的(de)最高統(tong)(tong)治(zhi)權掌握在皇帝一(yi)人手(shou)中(zhong),確(que)保(bao)了封建(jian)(jian)地主(zhu)專制(zhi)統(tong)(tong)治(zhi)。這(zhe)(zhe)套金字塔(ta)般統(tong)(tong)治(zhi)機構的(de)建(jian)(jian)立(li),標(biao)志著封建(jian)(jian)專制(zhi)主(zhu)義中(zhong)央集權制(zhi)度進一(yi)步強化。

郡縣制與西周分(fen)封制相比(bi)較(jiao),最(zui)主要的差別在于形成了中(zhong)央垂直管(guan)理地(di)方的形式。西漢王朝繼續(xu)推行郡縣制。漢初曾(ceng)分(fen)封諸侯王而形成“郡”、“國”并存的局面(mian),后逐步消除與中(zhong)央抗(kang)衡的地(di)方割據勢力,使“大一統”政體(ti)更為鞏(gong)固(gu)。

漢朝

漢景帝時改(gai)名太守﹐新(xin)莽時曾改(gai)為“大尹”或(huo)(huo)“連(lian)率”﹐東漢時仍稱太守。太守之秩為二(er)千石(shi)或(huo)(huo)比二(er)千石(shi)的﹐有的大郡太守為中二(er)千石(shi)。

太(tai)守(shou)(shou)的(de)(de)(de)職責(ze)是掌(zhang)管(guan)一(yi)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)的(de)(de)(de)民(min)政和軍(jun)事(shi)。但西漢時郡(jun)(jun)(jun)的(de)(de)(de)軍(jun)事(shi)平時似主要(yao)(yao)(yao)由(you)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)尉(wei)主管(guan)。太(tai)守(shou)(shou)常要(yao)(yao)(yao)“行(xing)縣(xian)”﹐以(yi)省察各縣(xian)令﹑長(chang)的(de)(de)(de)治狀(zhuang)。春(chun)天(tian)到各縣(xian)去“行(xing)春(chun)”﹐以(yi)勸課農桑。太(tai)守(shou)(shou)掌(zhang)握著一(yi)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)的(de)(de)(de)司法權﹐對民(min)事(shi)﹑刑事(shi)案件都可(ke)作(zuo)出最后的(de)(de)(de)判決(jue)。貢士進(jin)賢﹐即按中央的(de)(de)(de)要(yao)(yao)(yao)求向上推舉各種人才﹐也是太(tai)守(shou)(shou)的(de)(de)(de)一(yi)項重要(yao)(yao)(yao)任務﹐漢代謂之察舉。西漢時﹐每(mei)年(nian)秋天(tian)﹐太(tai)守(shou)(shou)主持“都試”以(yi)講武。皇帝向太(tai)守(shou)(shou)頒發(fa)發(fa)兵用的(de)(de)(de)銅虎符(fu)。郡(jun)(jun)(jun)中若發(fa)生武裝暴(bao)動﹐太(tai)守(shou)(shou)要(yao)(yao)(yao)率兵前往(wang)鎮(zhen)壓(ya)。邊郡(jun)(jun)(jun)太(tai)守(shou)(shou)還(huan)須率領(ling)官屬﹑軍(jun)隊與來(lai)犯之敵交(jiao)鋒作(zuo)戰。由(you)于郡(jun)(jun)(jun)守(shou)(shou)要(yao)(yao)(yao)兼領(ling)武事(shi)﹐故當(dang)時人常以(yi)“郡(jun)(jun)(jun)將”稱(cheng)之。

郡之長官(guan)、除(chu)太守外、秦置監(jian)(jian)﹑尉(wei)。西(xi)漢(han)(han)置尉(wei)而(er)不(bu)置監(jian)(jian)。景(jing)帝時改尉(wei)為都(dou)(dou)尉(wei)。都(dou)(dou)尉(wei)的職務是典武(wu)職甲卒。都(dou)(dou)尉(wei)和太守的治所(suo)可分(fen)設于(yu)兩地。都(dou)(dou)尉(wei)也設府置官(guan)屬﹐在郡中和太守并重﹐有時可代(dai)太守行事。漢(han)(han)武(wu)帝時曾一度命令(ling)東(dong)郡不(bu)置守﹐使都(dou)(dou)尉(wei)吾丘壽王主一郡之政(zheng)。西(xi)漢(han)(han)時沿邊諸郡﹐還(huan)增設部都(dou)(dou)尉(wei)數人。東(dong)漢(han)(han)初年﹐除(chu)邊郡外﹐皆不(bu)設都(dou)(dou)尉(wei)。不(bu)過后來有的內郡也仍有設者。

太(tai)守(shou)屬官(guan)有丞﹑五(wu)(wu)官(guan)掾(yuan)(yuan)﹑主(zhu)(zhu)簿﹑督郵﹑諸(zhu)曹(cao)(cao)(cao)掾(yuan)(yuan)史(shi)(shi)(shi)。丞為太(tai)守(shou)之(zhi)助手﹐五(wu)(wu)官(guan)掾(yuan)(yuan)則有太(tai)守(shou)“股肱”之(zhi)稱。主(zhu)(zhu)簿管(guan)(guan)文書。督郵主(zhu)(zhu)要(yao)職責是監察(cha)各(ge)縣﹐西(xi)漢時(shi)一(yi)(yi)郡(jun)似乎置督郵兩名﹐如(ru)(ru)河東郡(jun)分南北兩部(bu)(bu)﹐每部(bu)(bu)設(she)督郵一(yi)(yi)名。東漢時(shi)一(yi)(yi)郡(jun)所置督郵增多(duo)到三(san)名或(huo)四五(wu)(wu)名﹐多(duo)數郡(jun)是三(san)名。督郵除督察(cha)縣令﹑長外﹐還管(guan)(guan)制(zhi)地方的(de)奸猾豪強﹐成為守(shou)相之(zhi)耳目。郡(jun)設(she)置分管(guan)(guan)具體事務的(de)部(bu)(bu)門曰(yue)曹(cao)(cao)(cao)﹐郡(jun)曹(cao)(cao)(cao)有十幾種之(zhi)多(duo)﹐其中如(ru)(ru)功曹(cao)(cao)(cao)是專管(guan)(guan)官(guan)吏的(de)選(xuan)署(shu)﹑升黜﹐戶曹(cao)(cao)(cao)﹑集曹(cao)(cao)(cao)管(guan)(guan)戶籍(ji)及(ji)(ji)征集租谷等事﹐金曹(cao)(cao)(cao)管(guan)(guan)錢(qian)幣及(ji)(ji)鹽(yan)鐵生產(chan)﹐倉曹(cao)(cao)(cao)管(guan)(guan)倉廩﹑積貯﹐辭曹(cao)(cao)(cao)﹑決曹(cao)(cao)(cao)管(guan)(guan)獄訟﹐賊(zei)曹(cao)(cao)(cao)管(guan)(guan)武備和(he)治(zhi)安(an)﹐每曹(cao)(cao)(cao)皆(jie)置掾(yuan)(yuan)﹑史(shi)(shi)(shi)主(zhu)(zhu)其事。但(dan)也有不置曹(cao)(cao)(cao)而(er)設(she)掾(yuan)(yuan)者﹐如(ru)(ru)設(she)文學(xue)掾(yuan)(yuan)主(zhu)(zhu)管(guan)(guan)學(xue)官(guan)﹐設(she)市掾(yuan)(yuan)管(guan)(guan)理市場(chang)交易﹐設(she)都水掾(yuan)(yuan)﹑道橋掾(yuan)(yuan)以主(zhu)(zhu)管(guan)(guan)水利興修和(he)造橋筑路(lu)﹐掾(yuan)(yuan)﹑史(shi)(shi)(shi)主(zhu)(zhu)秩為百石。在掾(yuan)(yuan)史(shi)(shi)(shi)之(zhi)下(xia)還有書佐﹑循(xun)行﹑干等小吏。

縣(xian)(xian)(xian)之長(chang)官(guan)為令(ling)(ling)﹑長(chang)。新莽(mang)時(shi)曾將令(ling)(ling)﹑長(chang)改(gai)名為“宰”。《漢書》說縣(xian)(xian)(xian)滿萬戶者﹐其(qi)長(chang)官(guan)稱(cheng)令(ling)(ling)﹐不滿者稱(cheng)長(chang)。實(shi)際上漢代縣(xian)(xian)(xian)官(guan)稱(cheng)令(ling)(ling)或稱(cheng)長(chang)﹐有時(shi)也(ye)與其(qi)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)之重要與否有關﹐不單是決定于民戶的(de)(de)多少。令(ling)(ling)的(de)(de)秩為六(liu)百(bai)石(shi)到(dao)千石(shi)﹐長(chang)的(de)(de)秩為三(san)百(bai)石(shi)到(dao)五百(bai)石(shi)。

令﹑長的職責是(shi)掌管一(yi)縣(xian)(xian)的治安﹑刑訟及賦斂徭役(yi)等事(shi)(shi)。令﹑長之下設(she)(she)丞(cheng)一(yi)名﹐以主文書﹑倉庫(ku)和監獄。又設(she)(she)尉(wei)一(yi)名﹐專管武事(shi)(shi)﹐大縣(xian)(xian)則設(she)(she)左尉(wei)﹑右尉(wei)各一(yi)人。丞(cheng)﹑尉(wei)之秩為(wei)二百(bai)石(shi)到四(si)百(bai)石(shi)﹐又設(she)(she)廷(ting)掾以監鄉。縣(xian)(xian)也設(she)(she)置(zhi)十幾個曹的掾﹑史﹐以分掌縣(xian)(xian)內的許(xu)多具(ju)體事(shi)(shi)務。

漢代的太守﹑令﹑丞﹑尉皆由中央任免﹐而守﹑令以下的掾屬(shu)則歸守﹑令辟除(chu)﹐故漢人(ren)又(you)稱(cheng)郡縣掾﹑史(shi)為門下掾史(shi)。除(chu)三(san)輔和邊(bian)郡外﹐多任用當地人(ren)為吏。

鄉設(she)三老(lao)以掌教化﹐設(she)嗇夫(fu)以聽訟和(he)收(shou)賦(fu)稅﹐設(she)游徼以禁(jin)盜賊。亭(ting)有亭(ting)長﹐里(li)有里(li)典或里(li)魁﹑里(li)正(zheng)。

郡(jun)縣制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)確立后﹐中(zhong)央(yang)(yang)通過(guo)考課和(he)監(jian)(jian)察(cha)(cha)以加強對地方政(zheng)權的(de)(de)(de)控制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)。秦(qin)漢之制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)﹐郡(jun)守于(yu)每(mei)年(nian)秋冬向中(zhong)央(yang)(yang)上(shang)計(ji)﹐縣也同樣要上(shang)集(ji)簿于(yu)郡(jun)﹐中(zhong)央(yang)(yang)或(huo)(huo)(huo)郡(jun)即(ji)在(zai)這時各對其下屬進(jin)行(xing)考核﹐根據他們的(de)(de)(de)治狀(zhuang)而定殿最。守﹑令(ling)有功者可受獎(jiang)賞或(huo)(huo)(huo)升遷﹐有過(guo)者輕則(ze)貶秩﹐重則(ze)免(mian)官﹑服刑。和(he)考課相輔而行(xing)的(de)(de)(de)是監(jian)(jian)察(cha)(cha)制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)。中(zhong)央(yang)(yang)派郡(jun)監(jian)(jian)或(huo)(huo)(huo)刺(ci)史以監(jian)(jian)郡(jun)﹐郡(jun)縣也各派督郵(you)或(huo)(huo)(huo)廷(ting)掾以監(jian)(jian)縣或(huo)(huo)(huo)鄉。刺(ci)史﹑督郵(you)等可隨時按(an)劾有罪贓(zang)的(de)(de)(de)守﹑令(ling)或(huo)(huo)(huo)其它官吏。由于(yu)自(zi)上(shang)而下的(de)(de)(de)層(ceng)層(ceng)督課﹐使(shi)得中(zhong)央(yang)(yang)政(zheng)令(ling)能較(jiao)為順利地貫(guan)徹(che)到最基(ji)層(ceng)﹐保證了(le)政(zheng)令(ling)的(de)(de)(de)劃一性。為后來兩(liang)千年(nian)的(de)(de)(de)地方行(xing)政(zheng)體制(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)(zhi)奠定了(le)堅固的(de)(de)(de)基(ji)礎(chu)。

東漢末年﹐原(yuan)監察區性質的(de)州轉變為郡以上(shang)的(de)行政區﹐地方行政制度始成州郡縣三級。

隋唐以后

隋開皇三年(583)﹐罷天(tian)下諸(zhu)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)﹐以州(zhou)(zhou)統(tong)縣(xian)(xian)。大(da)業(ye)三年(607)﹐又改(gai)(gai)州(zhou)(zhou)為郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)﹐郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)置(zhi)太守。唐武德元(yuan)年(618)﹐復稱為州(zhou)(zhou)﹐州(zhou)(zhou)置(zhi)刺史。唐玄宗天(tian)寶元(yuan)年(742)﹐改(gai)(gai)州(zhou)(zhou)為郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)﹐郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)置(zhi)太守。后又改(gai)(gai)回。自此﹐郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)極(ji)少設(she)置(zhi)。至元(yuan)﹐郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)名完全廢棄,郡(jun)(jun)(jun)(jun)縣(xian)(xian)制改(gai)(gai)為州(zhou)(zhou)縣(xian)(xian)制。

作用

郡(jun)(jun)守、縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)令(ling)(縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)長(chang))由皇(huang)帝直(zhi)接(jie)(jie)任免,不得世襲(xi)。郡(jun)(jun)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)制使君(jun)主有(you)效(xiao)地(di)(di)(di)加強了(le)中央集權,有(you)利于(yu)(yu)政治的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)安定和(he)經濟的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)發(fa)展。春(chun)秋初期(qi),秦、晉、楚等國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)往往在(zai)新兼(jian)并的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)地(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)設縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)。縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)與卿大夫的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)封邑不同,是直(zhi)接(jie)(jie)隸(li)屬于(yu)(yu)國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)君(jun)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)地(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)行政區域,有(you)利于(yu)(yu)國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)君(jun)對(dui)邊遠地(di)(di)(di)區的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)統(tong)治。春(chun)秋中期(qi)以后,設縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)家增多(duo),有(you)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)在(zai)內地(di)(di)(di)也設置(zhi)了(le)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian),縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)開始成為(wei)地(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)行政組(zu)(zu)織。春(chun)秋末期(qi),有(you)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)家又(you)在(zai)新得到的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)邊遠地(di)(di)(di)區設置(zhi)了(le)郡(jun)(jun)。這時(shi)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)郡(jun)(jun),雖然面(mian)積比縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)大,但是由于(yu)(yu)偏(pian)僻荒涼(liang),地(di)(di)(di)廣人稀,地(di)(di)(di)位卻(que)比縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)低。進(jin)入戰國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)后,郡(jun)(jun)所轄的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)地(di)(di)(di)區逐漸繁榮(rong),人口(kou)增多(duo),于(yu)(yu)是在(zai)郡(jun)(jun)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)下面(mian)分設了(le)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)。戰國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)時(shi)期(qi),各國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)先后在(zai)邊地(di)(di)(di)和(he)內地(di)(di)(di)設置(zhi)了(le)郡(jun)(jun)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian),產生了(le)郡(jun)(jun)統(tong)轄縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)兩級(ji)地(di)(di)(di)方(fang)(fang)行政組(zu)(zu)織。至此,郡(jun)(jun)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)(xian)制開始形成。

郡的(de)(de)長官稱(cheng)“守(shou)”,縣(xian)的(de)(de)長官稱(cheng)“令”,均由(you)國(guo)君任免。郡縣(xian)制(zhi)使各(ge)諸侯國(guo)形(xing)成了(le)中央(yang)、郡、鄉一(yi)套比較系統(tong)的(de)(de)行(xing)政機構,對(dui)地主階級實行(xing)集權統(tong)治(zhi)起了(le)重要的(de)(de)作用。戰國(guo)時期,郡縣(xian)制(zhi)雖然形(xing)成并得(de)到了(le)很(hen)大的(de)(de)發展,但(dan)由(you)于各(ge)國(guo)分(fen)立,執(zhi)行(xing)情況不盡相同。直到秦統(tong)一(yi)中國(guo)后,為(wei)了(le)加(jia)強中央(yang)集權,才健全(quan)了(le)郡縣(xian)制(zhi),進而在全(quan)國(guo)推廣。

郡(jun)(jun)(jun)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)制(zhi)從(cong)根本上否(fou)定了(le)(le)分封(feng)制(zhi),打(da)破了(le)(le)西周以來分封(feng)割據的狀(zhuang)況(kuang),中(zhong)央(yang)通(tong)過(guo)考(kao)課和(he)監(jian)(jian)察加(jia)強(qiang)了(le)(le)中(zhong)央(yang)對(dui)地(di)(di)方的管(guan)理,有(you)(you)利于(yu)防止(zhi)地(di)(di)方割據分裂,有(you)(you)力地(di)(di)維護了(le)(le)國家的統(tong)一。秦漢之制(zhi),郡(jun)(jun)(jun)守(shou)于(yu)每年秋冬向中(zhong)央(yang)朝廷申報一年的治狀(zhuang),縣(xian)(xian)(xian)也同樣(yang)要上集(ji)簿(bu)于(yu)郡(jun)(jun)(jun),中(zhong)央(yang)或郡(jun)(jun)(jun)即在這時(shi)各(ge)對(dui)其(qi)下屬(shu)進行考(kao)核,有(you)(you)功(gong)者可受獎賞或升遷,有(you)(you)過(guo)者輕則(ze)(ze)貶(bian)秩,重則(ze)(ze)免官、服刑。和(he)考(kao)課相輔而行的是監(jian)(jian)察制(zhi)。中(zhong)央(yang)派郡(jun)(jun)(jun)監(jian)(jian)或刺(ci)史以監(jian)(jian)郡(jun)(jun)(jun),郡(jun)(jun)(jun)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)也各(ge)派督(du)郵或廷掾以監(jian)(jian)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)或鄉(xiang)。刺(ci)史、督(du)郵等可隨時(shi)按劾有(you)(you)罪贓(zang)的守(shou)、令或其(qi)他官吏。由(you)于(yu)自上而下的層層督(du)課,使(shi)得中(zhong)央(yang)政(zheng)令能(neng)較(jiao)為順(shun)利地(di)(di)貫徹(che)到最基層,保證了(le)(le)政(zheng)令的劃一性。秦漢的郡(jun)(jun)(jun)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)制(zhi)代(dai)替了(le)(le)周的分封(feng)制(zhi),也即從(cong)地(di)(di)方分權(quan)演進為干強(qiang)枝弱的中(zhong)央(yang)集(ji)權(quan)制(zhi),為后來2000年的地(di)(di)方行政(zheng)體制(zhi)奠定了(le)(le)堅固(gu)的基礎。東漢末年,原監(jian)(jian)察區性質的州(zhou)轉變為郡(jun)(jun)(jun)以上的行政(zheng)區,地(di)(di)方行政(zheng)制(zhi)度始成(cheng)州(zhou)郡(jun)(jun)(jun)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)三(san)級。隋開皇(huang)三(san)年(583),罷(ba)天(tian)下諸郡(jun)(jun)(jun),以州(zhou)統(tong)縣(xian)(xian)(xian)。至元,郡(jun)(jun)(jun)名(ming)完(wan)全廢棄(qi),改(gai)為行省制(zhi)度。

總(zong)之,郡縣制(zhi)廢(fei)除(chu)(chu)了(le)分(fen)封(feng)貴族時代的(de)(de)世襲特權(quan)(quan),有利于形(xing)成中(zhong)央(yang)(yang)對地方的(de)(de)垂直管理形(xing)式;廢(fei)除(chu)(chu)了(le)分(fen)封(feng)制(zhi),基本上解除(chu)(chu)了(le)地方分(fen)封(feng)割據(ju)勢力對中(zhong)央(yang)(yang)政權(quan)(quan)的(de)(de)威(wei)脅,既是(shi)(shi)君(jun)主專制(zhi)和中(zhong)央(yang)(yang)集權(quan)(quan)制(zhi)度的(de)(de)重(zhong)要組成部(bu)分(fen),也(ye)是(shi)(shi)官僚政治取代貴族政治的(de)(de)重(zhong)要標志。

發展

周、秦之變歷來被視作中(zhong)國(guo)歷史的(de)(de)重(zhong)(zhong)要轉(zhuan)折,封建、郡縣(xian)之辨更是其間最重(zhong)(zhong)要的(de)(de)內容。然(ran)而,郡縣(xian)制并(bing)非是商(shang)、周之制的(de)(de)斷(duan)裂,它仍(reng)然(ran)處(chu)于商(shang)、周傳統的(de)(de)延長線上。郡縣(xian)制的(de)(de)出現是春秋戰國(guo)時代治(zhi)理效率化競爭(zheng)的(de)(de)結果,并(bing)有賴于官僚制度的(de)(de)成長——更確(que)切(qie)地說,郡縣(xian)制的(de)(de)出現是“治(zhi)權”發展的(de)(de)結果。

秦漢以后,郡(jun)縣(xian)的(de)(de)(de)功能(neng)與范圍大致不(bu)變,因(yin)為(wei)郡(jun)縣(xian)作為(wei)地方政區(qu),主要(yao)任務(wu)是(shi)勸(quan)課農桑、征(zheng)收(shou)賦稅、維持治(zhi)安(an)。“縣(xian)”的(de)(de)(de)名(ming)稱(cheng)一直沿(yan)用至(zhi)今。郡(jun)一級(ji)的(de)(de)(de)行政區(qu)劃(hua),唐宋多(duo)稱(cheng)“州(zhou)(zhou)”,明清(qing)多(duo)稱(cheng)“府”,但其(qi)性質相近。由(you)于郡(jun)(州(zhou)(zhou)、府)數量太大,不(bu)便(bian)于朝廷管理(li),故而在郡(jun)(州(zhou)(zhou)、府)之上還(huan)編有更高(gao)一級(ji)的(de)(de)(de)政區(qu),東(dong)漢末年至(zhi)魏晉(jin)南北朝是(shi)“州(zhou)(zhou)”,唐代為(wei)“道”,宋代為(wei)“路”,元、明、清(qing)為(wei)“省”。

自(zi)秦始(shi)皇在全(quan)國(guo)范圍內推行單一的(de)(de)(de)郡(jun)(jun)縣制、中(zhong)間(jian)經由(you)漢(han)武帝予(yu)以穩定,在兩千多年(nian)的(de)(de)(de)歷史(shi)(shi)中(zhong),郡(jun)(jun)縣制一直是中(zhong)國(guo)古代國(guo)家的(de)(de)(de)基(ji)石(shi)。在今天(tian)中(zhong)國(guo)學界討論的(de)(de)(de)治理(li)體系創新(xin)的(de)(de)(de)議(yi)題中(zhong),郡(jun)(jun)縣制仍(reng)然是可資解讀的(de)(de)(de)重(zhong)要歷史(shi)(shi)資源(yuan)。

影響

郡(jun)縣(xian)制下的(de)(de)郡(jun)守(shou)和縣(xian)令都(dou)是由(you)皇帝直接任(ren)免,從(cong)而(er)使君主(zhu)有(you)效(xiao)地(di)加(jia)強(qiang)了(le)中央(yang)集權(quan),有(you)利于政治安定(ding)和經濟發展;郡(jun)縣(xian)制從(cong)根本上否定(ding)了(le)分(fen)封(feng)制,打破了(le)西周以來分(fen)封(feng)割據的(de)(de)狀況(kuang),加(jia)強(qiang)了(le)中央(yang)對地(di)方(fang)的(de)(de)管理,有(you)利于防止(zhi)地(di)方(fang)割據分(fen)裂,有(you)力地(di)維護了(le)國(guo)家的(de)(de)統一,為現代的(de)(de)行政區劃(hua)劃(hua)分(fen)提供了(le)重(zhong)要(yao)的(de)(de)歷(li)史參考。

本百科詞條(tiao)由(you)網站注冊用戶【 歲月靜好 】編輯上傳(chuan)提供(gong),詞(ci)條(tiao)屬(shu)于開放詞(ci)條(tiao),當前頁(ye)面(mian)所展示的詞(ci)條(tiao)介(jie)紹涉及宣傳(chuan)內容(rong)屬(shu)于注(zhu)冊用戶個人(ren)編輯行為(wei),與【郡縣制】的所屬(shu)企(qi)業/所有(you)人(ren)/主體無關,網站不完全保證(zheng)內容(rong)信(xin)息的準確性、真實性,也不代(dai)表本(ben)站立(li)場,各項數據(ju)信(xin)息存在更新不及時(shi)的情況(kuang),僅供(gong)參考,請以官方發布為(wei)準。如果頁(ye)面(mian)內容(rong)與實際情況(kuang)不符(fu),可點擊“反饋”在線(xian)向(xiang)網站提出修改(gai),網站將核實后進行更正(zheng)。 反饋
相關內容推薦
發表評論
您還未登錄,依《網絡安全法》相關要求,請您登錄賬戶后再提交發布信息。點擊登錄>>如您還未注冊,可,感謝您的理解及支持!
最新評論
暫無評論
網站提醒和聲明
本站(zhan)為注冊用(yong)戶(hu)提(ti)供(gong)信(xin)息(xi)存儲空(kong)間服務,非“MAIGOO編輯上傳提(ti)供(gong)”的(de)文章/文字均(jun)是注冊用(yong)戶(hu)自主(zhu)發布上傳,不代表(biao)本站(zhan)觀點,版權歸原作者(zhe)所有,如有侵權、虛假信(xin)息(xi)、錯誤(wu)信(xin)息(xi)或(huo)任何問題,請及時(shi)聯系我們(men),我們(men)將在第一時(shi)間刪(shan)除或(huo)更正(zheng)。 申請刪除>> 糾錯>> 投訴侵權>> 網(wang)頁(ye)上相關(guan)信(xin)息的知(zhi)識產(chan)權歸網(wang)站(zhan)方(fang)所有(you)(包(bao)括但不(bu)限(xian)于文字、圖片、圖表、著(zhu)作權、商(shang)標權、為用(yong)戶提供的商(shang)業信(xin)息等),非(fei)經(jing)許可不(bu)得抄襲或使用(yong)。
提交說(shuo)明: 查看提交幫助>> 注冊登錄>>
頁面相關分類
熱門模塊
已有4079208個品牌入駐 更新519623個招商信息 已發布1595006個代理需求 已有1366453條品牌點贊